Important Arthurian Works: The Vulgate Cycle

The Vulgate Cycle consisted of five French prose volumes written in the early 13th century (c. 1225-1240) by an unknown author or authors, although they are sometimes attributed to Walter Map, a clerk for King Henry II. There is also speculation that one person may have outlined the cycles but several authors (possibly the Cistercian monks) wrote them. The Vulgate Cycle, also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, makes Lancelot and the story of the Holy Grail the main focuses. The stories expanded on ideas introduced by French poet Chrétien de Troyes and may have derived from other sources as well, including Geoffrey of Monmouth. They are a major influence on Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur.

book cover from The History of the Holy Grail, image from Amazon.com

The five volumes are: Estoire du Graal (History of the Grail), c. 1240. This is a reworking of French poet Robert de Boron’s Joseph of Arimathea (c. 1200), which keys in on the story of Joseph of Arimathea taking the Holy Grail to Britain. Estoire de Merlin (History of Merlin), aka Vulgate Merlin or Prose Merlin, c. 1240. This is a prose adaptation of Boron’s Merlin. It tells stories of Arthur’s early years, such as the circumstances of his birth, how he was raised by Sir Ector, educated by Merlin, and how he becomes king via the sword in the stone. The book ends with the death of Merlin at the hands of Nimue, the Lady of the Lake. Lancelot Propre (Lancelot Proper), c. 1225. The story focuses on Lancelot instead of King Arthur. Among the stories are the knight’s birth, how he was raised by the Lady of the Lake, how his befriending of the giant Galehaut, his rescue of Guinevere from abduction, and the birth of Lancelot’s son, Galahad. Queste del Saint Graal (Quest of the Holy Grail), c. 1230. Sir Galahad is introduced as the one pure knight who can sit at the Siege Perilous, the designated seat at King Arthur’s Round Table for the one who will lead the Grail quest. La Mort de roi Artu (The Death of King Arthur), c. 1235. This volume details the adultery of Lancelot and Guinevere and how Mordred (introduced here as Arthur’s son for the first time) destroyed Camelot and killed Arthur. Following the five volumes of the Vulgate Cycle were a collection which is known as the Post-Vulgate Cycle. Written between 1230-1250, these were essentially a reworking of the Vulgate Cycle with parts omitted (much of the love affair between Lancelot and Guinevere), other parts emphasized more (Holy Grail), and some additional stories added (Tristan). Resources: Britaanica.com: Vulgate Cycle Jones’ Celtic Encyclopedia: The Vulgate Cycle King Arthur: A Man for the Ages The Vulgate Cycle Norris J. Lacy, editor. (1992-96). Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post Vulgate in Translation (5 volumes). New York: Garland. TimelessMyths.com: Vulgate Cycle Wikipedia entry: Lancelot-Grail Wikipedia entry: Post Vulgate Cycle

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Important Arthurian Works: Historia Regum Britanniae

Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain) sometime between 1135 and 1139. It is, as Wikipedia says, a “pseudohistorical account of British history”beginning with the settlement of Britain and continuing until the Anglo-Saxons assumed control of Britain around the 7th century. It is significant in Arthurian literature for placing King Arthur in the context of British monarch history. According to Geoffrey, Vortigern conspired with the Saxons to usurp the throne. Aurelius, the rightful heir, wrested back power and was succeeded by his brother, Uther Pendragon, who was the father of King Arthur.

Geoffrey introduced many of the ideas which would become benchmarks for many Arthurian stories to come. He created characters such as Merlin, Uther Pendragon, and Guinevere. He also told stories of Arthur's conception at Tintagel, Excalibur, and the king's final days. According to Geoffrey, Arthur assumed the throne at age 15 when his father dies. The new king fought a series of twelve battles against the Saxon barbarians, creating an empire including Ireland, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands. Following twelve years of peace, he conquered Norway, Denmark, and Gaul. As he prepared to march on Rome, Arthur learned that his nephew Mordred, whom he left in charge of Britain, married Guinevere and seized the throne. Arthur returned to Britain and killed Mordred, but was left mortally wounded. He handed the crown to his kinsman Constantine and was taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed, but was never seen again. Resources: Britannica.com: Historia Regum Britanniae Wikipedia.org: Historia Regum Britanniae Wikipedia.org: King Arthur York University: PDF version of book

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The Legend of the Red and White Dragons

In Welsh legend, the white dragon represents the enemy, the Saxons, while the red dragon represents Wales. In Arthurian legend, the red dragon is taken a step further to specifically represent the eventual triumph of Uther Pendragon and his son Arthur over the Saxon invasion of Britain. Nennius introduced the story of Vortigern taking up with the Saxons to try to overthrow a Britain in turmoil after the departure of the Romans. He tries to build a castle, but the walls keep collapsing. His advisers tell him he must sacrifice a fatherless child to fix the problem.

image from reddit.com

Future renditions of the Arthurian legend make this child Merlin (see his character study here). The young wizard tells Vortigern that the castle collapses because there are two warring dragons in an underground pool beneath the castle. In Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, the legend emerges when Merlin takes Arthur to visit Stonehenge. Arthur is eager to know more about his background and Merlin shares some of the details of how Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon, came to power. The idea of the battling dragons emerges by the end of the story when Morgan uses her shapeshifting power to turn herself into a dragon. Luckily her attack is thwarted by Otter, who has also learned the power of shapeshifting. Resources: Bo's Dragon Lore (NotableInklings.blogspot.com) Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends Barnes & Noble Books. Page 176. Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Justin E. Griffin (2001). The Holy Grail: The Legend, the History, the Evidence. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, and London. Page 10. Nennius Historia Brittonum (c. 828) Wikipedia.org entry: Merlin Wikipedia.org entry: White Dragon

The Legend of Stonehenge

image from commons.wikipedia.org

Stonehenge, the massive rock-circle monument on Salisbury Plain in the south of England, has been a source of intrigue for centuries. Eighty-five stones reach higher than 20 feet and some weighing more than 40 tons. Some appear to have been hauled from as much as 240 miles away. The structure is estimated to date back to as far as 3100 B.C., a time pre-dating writing, the use of cranes, and even the invention of the wheel.

Almost as puzzling as how it was created is why it was created. Among the theories are that it was created as a burial ground, served as a sort of farmer’s almanac, or was constructed as an observatory for tracking the movements of the stars and planets.

The astonishing structure and its mysteries have, not surprisingly, found their way into Arthurian legend. When Arthur’s father, Uther Pendragon, took the throne he wanted to build a monument to memorialize his brother, Aurelius Ambrosius, and those who had fallen in fighting off the Saxons. He enlisted Merlin to travel to Ireland and magically move the giant stones, known as the Giant’s Dance, to Wiltshire, England, where Stonehenge now stands. See “The Legend of the Red and White Dragons” and “Character Study: Merlin” for more details.

In Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, Stonehenge is pivotal to Arthur’s understanding of his heritage and his future. Merlin takes the young, doubting king to visit it. Where Uther Pendragon saw the massive structure as a symbol of power and strength, Arthur focuses on the circular structure as symbolic of unity and equality. His idea of building his kingdom around those principles – and an actual Round Table to represent those ideals – is born.

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Resources:

• Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends. Barnes & Noble Books.
• KingArthursKnights.com: The Structures of Arthurian Legend: Stonehenge
• Video: How Stonehenge Was Built, posted by Ahmed Boudjani.
• Video: Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?
• Video: National Geographic: Ancestral Stones
• Video: National Geographic: New Stonehenge Discovery
• Video: National Geographic: Secrets of Stonehenge
• Video: National Geographic: Stonehenge Decoded
• Video: National Geographic: Stonehenge Monument
• Video: The Stonehenge Conspiracy, posted by Plasingli.
• Video: Stonehenge Solstice Reconstruction, posted by mille666
• Video: Stonehenge – Wiltshire, England, posted by LearnFree2007.
• Video: Stonehenge – Wonders of the World, posted by Cosmic Awakening.

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Character Study: Merlin

Geoffrey of Monmouth introduced the character of Merlin (known in Welsh as Myrddin) to Arthurian legend. He is typically portrayed as a sorcerer with the power to see the future. Some accounts, such as the Vulgate Cycle, suggest these are the result of Merlin's birth to a demon and a mortal woman. He is typically seen as King Arthur's protector, mentor, and the very reason for Arthur's legendary status. For example, it is Merlin who is typically portrayed as the one who thrust the sword in the stone which Arthur later pulls out to secure his place as the rightful heir to the throne. In most tales, Merlin orchestrates Arthur's birth by using magic to let Uther Pendragon take the form of Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall. Uther then sleeps with Lady Igraine and Arthur is conceived.

image from califa.us

Geoffrey adapts a story from Nennius in which Merlin is seen as a child telling the King Vortigern that a castle's walls collapse because of two fighting dragons in an underground pool (see more on that legend here). Geoffrey also tells a story of Merlin being responsible for the creation of Stonehenge. The Vulgate Cycle says Merlin's death comes at the hands of the Lady of the Lake, also known as Nimue. Merlin falls in love with her and teachers her magic. She then turns on him and traps him for eternity in a crystal cave. Merlin has been a model for other wizards in history, such as J.R.R. Tolkien’s Gandalf in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and Professor Dumbledore in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series. image from crystalinks.com In the Otter and Arthur stories, Merlin is seen in a positive light as Arthur's tutor. The wizard does see the future and orchestrates events to ensure Arthur’s destiny, but is also ruled by a code of conduct which disallows him to alter what is meant to be - including his imprisonment for eternity at the hands of Morgan. See her character study here. Otter, the mouse, who lives in Merlin’s cottage and observes the tutoring of the young Arthur, becomes a sort-of secondary wizard. There is an implication that Merlin has gifted Otter with powers that will allow the mouse to change the supposedly pre-determined downfall of Arthur and Camelot even after the wizard is gone. At the time of this writing, the intention is to have Merlin trapped in a cave by Morgan's evil doing at the conclusion of Otter and Arthur and the Round Table. While she is never romantically linked to Merlin, she embodies traits of Nimue in that it will be revealed that Morgan knows magic because the wizard taught her when she was a young child. The Lady of the Lake is treated as a completely separate character who is more powerful than Merlin, but is good. Resources: Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends Barnes & Noble Books. Robert de Boron Merlin (c. 1200) Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Justin E. Griffin (2001). The Holy Grail: The Legend, the History, the Evidence. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, and London. Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) Nennius Historia Brittonum (c. 828) Vulgate Cycle: The Estoire de Merlin (c. 1230-1240) Wikipedia.org entry: Merlin

Otter First Sees the Sword in the Stone

screenshot from Disney's The Sword in the Stone

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An Excerpt from Chapter 6: Otter Goes to the Village

This scene takes place about a third of the way into the book. It is Otter's first trip to the village of Dragon Head where he sees the sword in the stone for the first time. The story is told in first person from Otter's viewpoint.

You can listen to an audio file of the excerpt here:

or read the text below:

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I was mesmerized by the village. I had never seen so many people and so much activity. The food was phenomenal. Shops sold and traded clothing, jewelry, beads, pottery, baskets, tools, and musical instruments. The shops surrounded a town square, which was the local gathering place for important meetings and events.

I was most intrigued by the town square and the peculiar decoration at its center. On top of a large stone sat an anvil. A sword had been thrust into the anvil. It seemed an odd centerpiece for the town.

When Arthur and Kay passed a blacksmith shop, they begged Merlin to stop so they could look at the swords and armor. Merlin waved a hand toward the shop to indicate it was okay. I beamed with pride at my own sword.

It was a hot day but the blacksmith in the back still slaved over his hot stove. He showed Arthur and Kay how to put the iron in the hot fire and then pound it into shape by placing the object on an anvil and hitting it with a hammer. He was eager to answer the boys’ questions.

After watching the blacksmith a few minutes, Arthur asked, “Did you put that sword in the anvil in the village square?”

“No,” replied the blacksmith. “No one knows how it got there. That large stone has been there as long as I can remember. A dozen years ago, that sword and anvil just showed up.”

“Why hasn’t someone pulled it out?” Arthur asked.

“It’s not from lack of trying,” replied the blacksmith. “I’ve seen the strongest knights in the kingdom tug on that thing for hours. No one’s even got it to budge.”

The answer satisfied Arthur and he returned to checking out the swords in the shop. A woman in front, who I assumed was the blacksmith’s wife, approached the boys.

“Be careful with those swords. I don’t want any heads lopped off in our shop.” Kay and Arthur nodded in agreement.

“You boys planning to be knights some day?” inquired the woman.

“Oh, yes, ma’am,” said Kay with excitement.

“Not me,” said Arthur in a disappointed voice.

“What’s the matter, boy? You don’t want to be a knight?”

“No, ma’am. I’d love it, but I’m not of noble birth.”

The woman looked at Arthur suspiciously. “You sure dress like a noble.”

“Oh,” said Arthur, “I was born to peasants but adopted by Sir Ector.”

“Hmmph. If you ask me, it’s the people like us who ought to be deciding if we fight or not. What do the nobles have to lose?” she grunted, jerking a thumb toward Kay. “They already have plenty.”

Kay rolled his eyes, but Arthur nodded in agreement. “I think you’re right,” he said. “Everyone should have a say.”