Important Arthurian Works: J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Fall of Arthur

The Fall of Arthur is an unfinished poem by J.R.R. Tolkien which was written in an Old English alliterative style. Think Beowulf. The poem comprises about only about a fourth of the book, which is mostly an in-depth analysis of the work, and the works which inspired it, as dissected by Tolkien’s son, Christopher. This is a book for fanatics, be they fanatics of anything Tolkien wrote and/or or anything related to the history of Arthurian literature. Evidence suggests the poem was abandoned in 1937, the year The Hobbit was published. However, in a letter as late as 1955, he talked of his hope of finishing it someday, but alas, that time never came. Christopher Tolkien shows how his father’s work linked to Thomas Malory’s famous Le Morte d’Arthur, the alliterative Morte Arthure, and the French Mort Artu. Christopher also shows how this work related to Tolkien’s pre-Hobbit work, The Silmarillion.

As for the abandoned story and its influences, the primary concern here is the demise of King Arthur. As Arthur and Sir Gawain fight oversees, Arthur’s nephew, Mordred, swoops in and takes over Camelot. The kingdom is further undone by the affair between Arthur’s wife, Guinevere, and his best knight, Lancelot. The poem, the manuscript notes, and Christopher Tolkien’s comments also reveal the intent of the poem to dissect how the ever-loyal Gawain confronted Lancelot and how Mordred and Arthur’s battle at Camlaan would lead the latter to Avalon to recover from mortal wounds. Resources: Amazon.com The New York Times “Legend Retold” (21 June 2013). Written by Andrew O’Hehir. TolkeinGateway.net

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Important Arthurian Works: Culhwch and Olwen

Evidence has suggested that this Welsh prose tale dates to the 11th century, which could make it the earliest Arthurian tale. The work has been preserved in the manuscript, Red Book of Hergest, and in partial form in the White Book of Rhydderech. It has also been included as part of Lady Charlotte Guest’s collection of translations of eleven medieval Welsh prose stories, The Mabinogion. The story has been cited as an influence on J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Silmarillion.

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The story focuses on Culhwch, the son of a king, and Olwen, the daughter of a giant named Ysbaddaden. Culhwch turns to his famous cousin, Arthur, for assistance in winning the beautiful Olwen away from her father. Ysbaddaden has given Culhwch a series of seemingly impossible tasks to complete before he will grant his daughter’s hand in marriage. Some of the challenges and quests with which Culhwch is tasked carved a blueprint for some of the more famous Arthurian legends, including the search for the Holy Grail. Resources: Lady Charlotte Guest The Mabinogion (1838-1849) Lady Charlotte Guest Culhwch ac Olwen (online translation) Red Book of Hergest (c. 1400) White Book of Rhydderech (c. 1325) J.R.R. Tolkien The Silmarillion (1977) UIdaho.edu: Culhwch and Olwen Wikipedia.org: Culhwch and Olwen

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Important Arthurian Works: Chrétien de Troyes

In the late 12th century, Frenchman Chrétien de Troyes was a poet in the court of Marie, countess of Champagne, suggesting he may have been a court poet. He wrote five major poems in eight-syllable rhyming couplets: Érec et Énide (c. 1165-1170) Cligès (c. 1176) Yvain, the Knight of the Lion (c. 1171-1181) Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette (Lancelot, the King of the Cart) (c. 1177-1181) Perceval, le Conte du Graal (Perceval, the Story of the Grail) (c. 1181-1190)

The first four were finished, but Perceval was not. He finished only 9000 lines, but 54,000 lines were added by four other writers. These works, especially the latter two, are significant for introducing the character of Lancelot and the quest for the Holy Grail to Arthurian legend. Those tales were expanded in the Vulgate Cycle in the first half of the next century. Resources: Brtiannica.com: Chrétien de Troyes LegendofKingArthur.co.uk: Chrétien de Troyes Princeton.edu: Background Information on Chrétien de Troyes’ Le Chevalier de la Charrette Vulgate Cycle (1225-1240) Wikipedia.org: Chrétien de Troyes

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Legend of the Holy Grail

The story of the Holy Grail is one of the most prominent stories which features into Arthurian legend. Like many of the tales associated with King Arthur, it has a historical basis, but over generations of retelling the story, it has taken on different twists. Historically, the grail is considered to be some sort of container - generally a goblet - although this varies. There may be a basis of a cauldron with special powers in Celtic myth. The grail also portrayed as the cup from which Christ drank at the Last Supper and/or also may have been the chalice used to collect his blood after his crucifixion. Joseph of Arimathea - who has been theorized to be Christ's great uncle - is, depending on the account, thought to be the person who brought the grail to England. It has specifically been tied to Glastonbury, which is generally considered the site of Avalon in Arthurian legend. It also considered to be the site of the first Christian church in England, built by Joseph of Arimathea.

image from messiah.edu

Chrétien de Troyes introduced the Holy Grail to Arthurian legend via his unfinished work, Le Conte du Graal (c. 1185), also known as Perceval le Gallois. The knight Perceval (later called Sir Galahad) encounters the Fisher King, who is stuck in limbo between life and death. Perceval is tasked with the quest of retrieving the Holy Grail, which will relieve the Fisher King of his suffering. French poet Robert de Boron also took up the tale with three books, of which only Joseph d' Arimathea (c. 1200), has survived in tact. It has been retold as one of the Vulgate cycles in Estoire de Saint Graal (c. 1240). Fragments of the second, Merlin, exist and the third, Perceval, is lost. Didot Perceval (c. 1205) is considered a version of the latter, written anonymously in prose. In Joseph d' Arimathea, Boron extends the story of Perceval by introducing the idea that he is the pure knight who can sit at Siege Perilous, a special seat at the Round Table. image from pantheon.org In the context of the Otter and Arthur stories, the grail is shaping up to be the centerpiece of a possible third book, Otter and Arthur and the Holy Grail. While there is only a rough sketch at this time, the basic premise of the story may be that it is Sir Gawain who seeks the Holy Grail, an idea first put forth in Heinrich von dem Türlin's poem Diu Crône (c. 1220), which in English means "The Crown."

Resources: Robert de Boron (c. 1200). Joseph d' Arimathea Robert de Boron (c. 1200). Merlin Robert de Boron (c. 1200). Perceval Chrétien de Troyes (c. 1185). Le Conte du Graal or Perceval le Gallois Didot Perceval (c. 1205) Justin E. Griffin (2001). The Holy Grail: The Legend, the History, the Evidence. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, and London. TimelessMyths.com: Grail Legend: Perceval's Tradition Heinrich von dem Türlin (c. 1220). Diu Crône Vulgate Cycle Estoire de Saint Graal (c. 1240) Wikipedia.org: The Holy Grail

Important Arthurian Works: Historia Regum Britanniae

Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain) sometime between 1135 and 1139. It is, as Wikipedia says, a “pseudohistorical account of British history”beginning with the settlement of Britain and continuing until the Anglo-Saxons assumed control of Britain around the 7th century. It is significant in Arthurian literature for placing King Arthur in the context of British monarch history. According to Geoffrey, Vortigern conspired with the Saxons to usurp the throne. Aurelius, the rightful heir, wrested back power and was succeeded by his brother, Uther Pendragon, who was the father of King Arthur.

Geoffrey introduced many of the ideas which would become benchmarks for many Arthurian stories to come. He created characters such as Merlin, Uther Pendragon, and Guinevere. He also told stories of Arthur's conception at Tintagel, Excalibur, and the king's final days. According to Geoffrey, Arthur assumed the throne at age 15 when his father dies. The new king fought a series of twelve battles against the Saxon barbarians, creating an empire including Ireland, Iceland, and the Orkney Islands. Following twelve years of peace, he conquered Norway, Denmark, and Gaul. As he prepared to march on Rome, Arthur learned that his nephew Mordred, whom he left in charge of Britain, married Guinevere and seized the throne. Arthur returned to Britain and killed Mordred, but was left mortally wounded. He handed the crown to his kinsman Constantine and was taken to the isle of Avalon to be healed, but was never seen again. Resources: Britannica.com: Historia Regum Britanniae Wikipedia.org: Historia Regum Britanniae Wikipedia.org: King Arthur York University: PDF version of book

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Important Arthurian Works: Le Morte d'Arthur

Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur was one of the earliest printed books in England and is probably the best-known work of English-language Arthurian literature today. It was originally written as eight books and then published as 21 books by William Caxton in 1485. Malory likely started work on the project in the early 1450s while he was in prison and completed it by 1470. His aim was to create a comprehensive and authoritative collection of Arthurian stories. To that end, he largely translated the French Vulgate Cycle and compiled them with other Middle English sources.

The original eight books were: Book I: From the Marriage of King Uther unto King Arthur that Reigned After Him and Did Many Battles (Caxton I–IV) Book II: The Noble Tale Between King Arthur and Lucius the Emperor of Rome (Caxton V) Book III: The Noble Tale of Sir Launcelot Du Lac (Caxton VI) Book IV: The Tale of Sir Gareth of Orkney (Caxton VII) Book V: The First and the Second Book of Sir Tristrams de Lione (Caxton VIII–XII) Book VI: The Noble Tale of the Sangreal (Caxton XIII–XVII) Book VII: Sir Lancelot and Queen Guinevere (Caxton XVIII–XIX) Book VIII: The Death of Arthur (Caxton XX–XXI) Resources: Arthurian-legend.com: Le Morte d’Arthur – summary of Malory’s story Gutenberg.org: Le Morte d’Arthur (entire text online) Wikipedia.org: Le Morte d’Arthur

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The Legend of the Red and White Dragons

In Welsh legend, the white dragon represents the enemy, the Saxons, while the red dragon represents Wales. In Arthurian legend, the red dragon is taken a step further to specifically represent the eventual triumph of Uther Pendragon and his son Arthur over the Saxon invasion of Britain. Nennius introduced the story of Vortigern taking up with the Saxons to try to overthrow a Britain in turmoil after the departure of the Romans. He tries to build a castle, but the walls keep collapsing. His advisers tell him he must sacrifice a fatherless child to fix the problem.

image from reddit.com

Future renditions of the Arthurian legend make this child Merlin (see his character study here). The young wizard tells Vortigern that the castle collapses because there are two warring dragons in an underground pool beneath the castle. In Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, the legend emerges when Merlin takes Arthur to visit Stonehenge. Arthur is eager to know more about his background and Merlin shares some of the details of how Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon, came to power. The idea of the battling dragons emerges by the end of the story when Morgan uses her shapeshifting power to turn herself into a dragon. Luckily her attack is thwarted by Otter, who has also learned the power of shapeshifting. Resources: Bo's Dragon Lore (NotableInklings.blogspot.com) Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends Barnes & Noble Books. Page 176. Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Justin E. Griffin (2001). The Holy Grail: The Legend, the History, the Evidence. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, and London. Page 10. Nennius Historia Brittonum (c. 828) Wikipedia.org entry: Merlin Wikipedia.org entry: White Dragon

The Legend of Stonehenge

image from commons.wikipedia.org

Stonehenge, the massive rock-circle monument on Salisbury Plain in the south of England, has been a source of intrigue for centuries. Eighty-five stones reach higher than 20 feet and some weighing more than 40 tons. Some appear to have been hauled from as much as 240 miles away. The structure is estimated to date back to as far as 3100 B.C., a time pre-dating writing, the use of cranes, and even the invention of the wheel.

Almost as puzzling as how it was created is why it was created. Among the theories are that it was created as a burial ground, served as a sort of farmer’s almanac, or was constructed as an observatory for tracking the movements of the stars and planets.

The astonishing structure and its mysteries have, not surprisingly, found their way into Arthurian legend. When Arthur’s father, Uther Pendragon, took the throne he wanted to build a monument to memorialize his brother, Aurelius Ambrosius, and those who had fallen in fighting off the Saxons. He enlisted Merlin to travel to Ireland and magically move the giant stones, known as the Giant’s Dance, to Wiltshire, England, where Stonehenge now stands. See “The Legend of the Red and White Dragons” and “Character Study: Merlin” for more details.

In Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, Stonehenge is pivotal to Arthur’s understanding of his heritage and his future. Merlin takes the young, doubting king to visit it. Where Uther Pendragon saw the massive structure as a symbol of power and strength, Arthur focuses on the circular structure as symbolic of unity and equality. His idea of building his kingdom around those principles – and an actual Round Table to represent those ideals – is born.

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Resources:

• Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends. Barnes & Noble Books.
• KingArthursKnights.com: The Structures of Arthurian Legend: Stonehenge
• Video: How Stonehenge Was Built, posted by Ahmed Boudjani.
• Video: Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?
• Video: National Geographic: Ancestral Stones
• Video: National Geographic: New Stonehenge Discovery
• Video: National Geographic: Secrets of Stonehenge
• Video: National Geographic: Stonehenge Decoded
• Video: National Geographic: Stonehenge Monument
• Video: The Stonehenge Conspiracy, posted by Plasingli.
• Video: Stonehenge Solstice Reconstruction, posted by mille666
• Video: Stonehenge – Wiltshire, England, posted by LearnFree2007.
• Video: Stonehenge – Wonders of the World, posted by Cosmic Awakening.

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Character Study: Sir Kay

Sir Kay (aka Cai, Caius, Cei, Kai, Kei, Kes, Keu, Kex, or Queux) is one of the earliest figures to appear in Arthurian legend, having surfaced in the tenth century poem Pa Gur, classic early Welsh texts such as Culwch and Olwen, and the 12th century French poem Tristan and Iseult. The Vulgate Cycle and Le Morte d’Arthur established the story of Kay’s father, Sir Ector, adopting Arthur and raising him as Kay’s foster brother. When Arthur became king, Kay became the senseschal at Camelot, which meant he oversaw operations at the castle such as the supervision of the servants. He was one of the first Knights of the Round Table. The works of Chrétien de Troyes depicted Kay as a troublemaker prone to incompetence, stubbornness, bragging, and a volatile temper. He is often depicted of manipulative of his brother, but ultimately as one of Arthur’s most loyal knights. Different accounts have Kay being killed by the Romans or in the war against Mordred, Arthur’s traitorous son. The 13th century French Arthurian romance Perlesvaus is one of the few sources which characterizes Kay as a traitor with him murdering Arthur’s son, Loholt.

image from tumblr.com/tagged/sir kay of Peter Mooney as Kay in the Starz TV series, Camelot

Otter and Arthur and the Sword in the Stone follows Kay and Arthur as they are tutored by Merlin. The book unfolds the familiar tale of Arthur as a squire for Kay in a jousting tournament. Arthur searches frantically for a replacement when Kay’s sword turns up missing and ends up pulling the sword from the stone and becoming king. In the sequel, Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, Kay has been made seneschal at Camelot, but is secretly plotting against his brother. He aligns himself with Arthur’s bitterest enemies – King Lot and Morgan, Lot’s wife and Arthur’s half-sister. Resources: Anonymous Culhwch and Olwen (c. 1100) Chrétien de Troyes Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette (Lancelot, the King of the Cart) (c. 1162) Chrétien de Troyes Perceval, le Conte du Graal (Perceval, the Story of the Grail) (c. 1180) Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends Barnes & Noble Books. EarlyBritishKingdoms.com KingArthursKnights.com Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) Perlesvaus (early 13th century) Vulgate Cycles (c. 1225-1240) WK Wikipedia.org: Sir Kay

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Character Study: Merlin

Geoffrey of Monmouth introduced the character of Merlin (known in Welsh as Myrddin) to Arthurian legend. He is typically portrayed as a sorcerer with the power to see the future. Some accounts, such as the Vulgate Cycle, suggest these are the result of Merlin's birth to a demon and a mortal woman. He is typically seen as King Arthur's protector, mentor, and the very reason for Arthur's legendary status. For example, it is Merlin who is typically portrayed as the one who thrust the sword in the stone which Arthur later pulls out to secure his place as the rightful heir to the throne. In most tales, Merlin orchestrates Arthur's birth by using magic to let Uther Pendragon take the form of Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall. Uther then sleeps with Lady Igraine and Arthur is conceived.

image from califa.us

Geoffrey adapts a story from Nennius in which Merlin is seen as a child telling the King Vortigern that a castle's walls collapse because of two fighting dragons in an underground pool (see more on that legend here). Geoffrey also tells a story of Merlin being responsible for the creation of Stonehenge. The Vulgate Cycle says Merlin's death comes at the hands of the Lady of the Lake, also known as Nimue. Merlin falls in love with her and teachers her magic. She then turns on him and traps him for eternity in a crystal cave. Merlin has been a model for other wizards in history, such as J.R.R. Tolkien’s Gandalf in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and Professor Dumbledore in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series. image from crystalinks.com In the Otter and Arthur stories, Merlin is seen in a positive light as Arthur's tutor. The wizard does see the future and orchestrates events to ensure Arthur’s destiny, but is also ruled by a code of conduct which disallows him to alter what is meant to be - including his imprisonment for eternity at the hands of Morgan. See her character study here. Otter, the mouse, who lives in Merlin’s cottage and observes the tutoring of the young Arthur, becomes a sort-of secondary wizard. There is an implication that Merlin has gifted Otter with powers that will allow the mouse to change the supposedly pre-determined downfall of Arthur and Camelot even after the wizard is gone. At the time of this writing, the intention is to have Merlin trapped in a cave by Morgan's evil doing at the conclusion of Otter and Arthur and the Round Table. While she is never romantically linked to Merlin, she embodies traits of Nimue in that it will be revealed that Morgan knows magic because the wizard taught her when she was a young child. The Lady of the Lake is treated as a completely separate character who is more powerful than Merlin, but is good. Resources: Ronan Coghlan (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Arthurian Legends Barnes & Noble Books. Robert de Boron Merlin (c. 1200) Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Justin E. Griffin (2001). The Holy Grail: The Legend, the History, the Evidence. McFarland & Company, Inc.: Jefferson, NC, and London. Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d'Arthur (1485) Nennius Historia Brittonum (c. 828) Vulgate Cycle: The Estoire de Merlin (c. 1230-1240) Wikipedia.org entry: Merlin

Character Study: King Arthur

King Arthur is a legendary British leader from the late 5th and early 6th centuries. Arthurian literature gained widespread appeal in the Middle Ages, but waned until a major resurgence in the 19th century. Today Arthurian legend inspires not only literature, but film, television, theater, and other media. While there is not one definitive source for King Arthur, some of the most popular characters generally included in the tales include the wizard Merlin who tutored him, his son Mordred who destroys Camelot, and his wife Guinevere who has an affair with the king’s best knight, Lancelot. Popular legends associated with Arthurian literature include him pulling the sword from the stone to become king, establishing a Round Table as his form of governing Britain, and the search for the Holy Grail.

image from www.historyanswers.co.uk

Otter and Arthur and the Sword in the Stone focuses on Arthur before he becomes king. He is raised by Sir Ector with Kay as his brother. Unaware of his heritage, he longs for greatness. The friendship he develops with a mouse nicknamed Otter proves to be just what he needs to fulfill his destiny – pulling the sword from the stone and becoming King of all Britain. In the sequel, Otter and Arthur and the Round Table, Arthur has been king several years and is continuously fighting against forces trying to usurp his authority. With Otter at his side again, he comes up with the idea of a Round Table as a means of bringing forces together from throughout Britain to govern peaceably. A Brief History of Arthurian Literature:

Arthur’s actual existence has been argued by scholars, a debate confused by some of the earliest references to Arthur in texts purporting to be factual accounts. The 9th century Historia Brittonum, attributed to a Welsh cleric named Nennius, is considered the first source to mention Arthur. It details twelve battles Arthur fought, including his final battle at Mount Badon in which he is said to have killed 960 men single-handedly.

The 11th century Welsh tales “Culhwch and Olwen” and the “Dream of Rhonabwy” appear to be the first stories to concern Arthur. However, it was Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae which truly popularized King Arthur. The work attempted to place Arthur in the official lineage of British monarchy and establish him as the leader who deterred Saxon invaders and united Britain.

In the late 12th century, French poet Chrétien de Troyes added the character of Lancelot and the quest for the Holy Grail to Arthurian legend. Those tales were expanded in the Vulgate Cycle in the first half of the next century.

Perhaps the most popular of Arthurian literature is Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur. While it keeps the Arthur story set in the Dark Ages, it framed the story in the more familiar medieval pageantry settings we know today, such as the fancy court of Camelot, jousting, and knights in shining armor.

Resources: Britannia.com: King Arthur in literature Chrétien de Troyes Lancelot, le Chevalier de la Charrette (Lancelot, the King of the Cart) (c. 1162) Chrétien de Troyes Perceval, le Conte du Graal (Perceval, the Story of the Grail) (c. 1180) Geoffrey of Monmouth Historia Regum Britanniae (c. 1136) Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d’Arthur (1485) Nennius Historia Brittonum (c. 828) Vulgate Cycle (1225-1240) Wikipedia.org: King Arthur

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